Agency & Control in and of the Media
This area of study looks at the complex relationship between media and audience. It has long been understood that the media has the capacity to influence audiences. Now, however, the balance of power has shifted and both the media and it's audiences are thought to exercise agency.
During this area of study we will look at the roles the media and audience play, various agency & control theories, Australian laws & policies surrounding media distribution and the regulation of media.
Key Knowledge:
Students will understand:
• The dynamic and changing relationship between the media and its audience
• The influence of both the media and audience
• The way media is used by globalised media institutions, governments and the individual
• the rationale for regulating the relationships between the media and its audience in Australia
• The issues and challenges relating to regulation and control of the media
• Ethical and legal issues in the production, distribution, consumption and reception of media products
• Media language
Key Skills:
Students will be able to:
• Discuss the dynamic and changing relationship between the media and its audience
• Discuss the extent of the influence of the media and media audience
• Analyse the regulation of relationships between the media and its audience in Australia
• Analyse issues and challenges relating to regulation and control of the media
• Evaluate ethical and legal issues in the media
• use media language
Theories of Media Influence
The theories of media influence that we will be looking at are:
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The Bullet Theory – The Hypodermic Needle
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Uses and Gratification Theory
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The Agenda Setting Function Theory
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Reinforcement Theory
Key Terms:
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Communication models:
The model of communication/ delivery of information. A linear model for example flows from The Sender (Media) to the Message then on to The Receiver (Audience)in a straight line. We can also have non linear models where the audience can send information back to the media. -
Top down models:
This is where the information flows from the Top (Media or Government controlled) to the bottom (the audience). -
Passive or Active audiences:
Passive: The audience that receives the message as intended.
Active: The audience that receives the message and adds their own meaning to it. -
The Gate Keeper:
The controller of the information (usually the Media). -
Quantitative Research:Objective Numerical Data.
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Qualitative: Subjective interpretation of events/data.
The Bullet/ Hypodermic Needle:
Features of this theory:
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Top Down
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Passive Audience
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Message received as intended
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No Interpretation
This theory was introduced in the 1920s-1940s by the Frankfurt School in Germany. This is the first communication theory and is used widely as a propaganda tool and during war. This was evident in Nazi propaganda as they used the media to delivered their message (with only one point of view) to the Germans (Audience).
Research:Psychologists conducted experiments to try and prove this theory – BANDURA conducted the Bobo Doll Experiment. Children were shown videos of someone punching a Bobo Doll. When individual children were left in the room with a Bobo doll after they watched the video, the children proceeded to hit the Bobo Doll. The conclusion of this experiment is that Children imitate what they see on TV.
Criticisms:
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The point of The Bobo Doll is that it is a toy with the purpose of being shoved, pushed and punched. The children interacted with the doll in the way it was intended to be used.
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The Socio Economic Background and personal experiences of the participants of this experiments and other similar experiments were never taken into consideration as a potential influence.
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The Sex of the Child was never mentioned or measured as a potential influence.
This theory, developed in the 1940s, operates under the idea that the Media has four functions:
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Providing information & news
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Selecting and interpreting the information
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Entertainment
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Communicating norms, values and societal rules
In 1974, Blumer Katz and Gurevitch expanded the list by adding:
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Provides an emotional release from problems
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Companionship (Conversing with others/ watching with others)
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Reinforcement of personal identity
This theory believes that the Audience is active, which means the media has no power as the audiences select what they want to watch.
Research: The research surrounding this theory is quantitative research, measuring the number of viewers watching TV through ratings. Ratings/Audience size played a big part in whether a show was axed or continued.
Criticisms:
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The research purely looked at numbers/ratings, rather than explaining what the numbers meant and influencing factors.
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The theory explained that the audience was active in their choice of what to watch, however, it did not research/discuss whether the audience was influenced or not.
Uses and Gratification:
The Agenda Setting Function Theory:
This theory operates under the idea that The Media may not be able to tell Audiences what to think, but The Media may be able to tell Audiences what to think about. Therefore, the media can set the agenda.
This ability is due to the Media creators having the power to select or omit information on behalf of the audience - depending on social, political and economic agendas.
Social can include things like Equal Marriage rights or banning junk food in Schools or advertising.
Political can include setting an agenda for which political party to vote for.
Economic agenda can be set to the economic gain the Media producers may be aiming for. This can include specific advertising, avoiding any negative coverage of a particular product to continue to gain advertising revenue.
Research: Researchers became aware that the first item on TV news or on the first page of a newspaper was the most important news of the day. Studies showed that news bulletins have priorities indicated by the running order. The order tells the audience not what to think about but How and What to think about and and what time to think about it. This is done through framing, which means the produces are selecting and omitting certain views which may support or reject particular issues. This is also known as BIAS.
Criticism:
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The studies were observational, focusing on the way the media attempted to set the agenda and shape audience opinion, rather than the how the media changed audience behaviour.
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The theory presumes the audience is knowledgable.
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The theory does not determine extent of media influence.
The Reinforcement Theory:
This theory was developed in the 1960s, looking at the effect of new technology on the audience. Originally this was looked at in regards to the introduction of TV. Now, however, it can be considered in regards to the internet and social media.
Klapper theorised:
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The media has very little power to influence the audience
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The audience is active
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Texts are open to interpretation
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The texts work to reinforce existing opinions or values.
Research: Audiences were questions on their opinion of where and how they formed their values. The findings were that socialising agents formed their values. This includes family, religion, school and occupation.
Criticism: Socialising agents are culturally grouped, meaning audiences will fit and work within a specific Socio-economic format. This will result in these groups thinking in the same way and holding the same values.
Reception Theories
Semiotic Constructivist Theory:
Within our society there are signs that have specific meanings that we understand. For example, rainbow flags signify a gay friendly place or the promotion of acceptance of homosexuality. A pink ribbon will connote we support the fight against breast cancer in women. As a result, society has a set of codes functioning at a symbolic and ideological level.
What the audience does with the media in this theory is they are able to interpret the signs and understand the Ideological concept behind it.
Baudrillard and Simulacra:
Baudrillard is a French communication theorist that has coined the term “Simulacra.”
Simulacra is the false reality that is made up of representations so convincing that they have replaced what was once real. An example of this is Sovereign Hill where the whole place represents the Victorian Goldfields in the late 1800’s.
Baudrillard Theory is the representation of reality eventually becomes a version of the real world that the audience will start to reference. After a while people will accept this representation as a reality.
Other example of Simulacra are: Role playing games, GTA, Sim City, etc… and movies and TV dramas.
What the audience does with the media in this theory is that they watch a text about The Godfather and the Italian Mafia and use the text as a reference although they have no real idea about the real characters or organisations represented. Another example of this is audiences watching a text set in the 1950s and using the text as a reference for the 1950s, despite having no real idea or information of the time period.
Decoding the Media:
In 1973 Stuart Hall theorised that the media is a set of codes that require decoding.
His 3 central ideas were:
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Meaning is not set by the producers of the text: The audience's cultural background will influence the meaning they associate with the code. E.g. White is the appropriate dress colour for a bride in western culture, whereas it is red in Asian Culture
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Message is not always visible: Depending on the cultural background, age, and experience of the audience member, the message can go unnoticed as the audience is unable to decode the text without prior knowledge.
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The reader does not passively receive a text: The reader of the text is active and will try and interpret or decode the message sent.
Stuart also argued that the audience’s reception of the text is dependent on the background noise or interference. This interference could be the physical location such as cinema, class room, TV or DVD, or the emotional location, that is what emotional stresses the audience is under at the time of viewing or reading the text.
Criticism: These theories still do not explain if the media influences the audience. It assumes that the audience is always active and that depending on cultural differences whether the audience will accept or reject the message.
Effects of the Media
Vulnerable Audiences:
When looking at the effects of the Media and its potential ability to influence audiences, there are some audience members that are considered to be more vulnerable to media influence than others.
Audiences that have been or are considered to be vulnerable are:
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Children
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The Elderly
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The mentally unstable or handicapped
Under the hypothesis that children were more susceptible to media influence, Robert Hodge and David Tripp engaged in research to evaluate this theory.
Quantitative research Findings for children aged 0-6:
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Spend an average of two hours a day watching TV or DVD
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50 % have used video games and 70 % have used a computer
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Two thirds live in a home where TV is left on half the day even if no one is watching.
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The remaining third live in a home where TV is left on most of the time. These children appear to read less than the other children and are slower learners.
Their research found:
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Children are capable and powerful Decoders of TV.
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Children cognitive and semiotic ability develops up to the age of 12
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Children can determine what is real on TV
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Children should be exposed to mild representations of conflict to learn that Media Violence is different from Real Violence
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Children alter and renegotiate meanings gained from TV when applying it to issues and discussions of issues.
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Family, not TV, is the most important factor to children’s understanding of the world.
Hypotheses on the effects of media:
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The mean world: Because of the reporting of violence on the news we feel as if we live in a mean world and should lock our doors and be fearful of strangers.
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Catharsis: You get an emotional release when you watch something that relates to their current mood.
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Desensitisation: Audiences become desensitised when exposed to too much violence
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Copy Cat: Audience will copy the action of events that occur in the media
Regulation
What is regulation?
Media Regulation is not censorship. Media regulation provides a number of rules or laws that the creators and consumers of media are required to follow.
The rules/laws are to:
- Prevent Copy Cat behaviour
- Protect children from potentially harmful media
- Protect viewers from offensive media
- Protect cultural identity
- Regulate media ownership
Who regulates the Media?
In Australia the media is both Self-Regulated and governed by the Australian Communication and Media Authority (ACMA).
The ACMA:
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Enforce regulation that protects vulnerable audiences from exposure of offensive material
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Promotes Diversity of ownership
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Promotes the National Identity
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Allows and promotes self-regulation whilst protecting consumers
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Fosters an environment that responds to consumer needs whilst respecting community standards
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Represents Australia's communications needs and interests internationally
The National Classification scheme:
In Australia, the classification of media is the responsibility of the Attorney General's Department. The classification board and classification review board determine the classification of media within Australia.
When making decisions about classification of media the following is considered:
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Morality standards
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Literary, artistic or educational merit
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Genre
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Target audience
The following principles guide the classification decisions:
- Freedom of choice for adults
- Minors and should be protected from harmful media
- Everyone should be protected from offensive media
- Community concerns must be taken into account (i.e violence, demeaning portrayals etc)
Classification Categories:
- G
- PG
- M 15+
- MA 15+
- R
- X
Inappropriate media is refused classification and prohibited from sale in Australia.
Advertising Standards:
In Australia there is an Advertising Standards Bureau (ASB). The ASB has a national system of advertising self-regulation. The ASB is also a free service consumers can use to register complaints. Complaints can include the issues of:
- Use of language
- Discrimination
- Violence
- Sex
- Nudity
- Concern for Children
- Health and Safety
- Food and beverages marketed towards children
The ASB has follows a number of codes to regulate advertisement content knows as The Australian Association of National Advertisers (AANA) Code of Practice. The codes of practice aims to ensure that “advertisements are legal, decent, honest and truthful and that they have been prepared with a sense of obligation to the consumer and society and fair sense of responsibility to competitors.”
Pros & Cons:
Arguments for media regulation:
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Vulnerable Audiences are protected
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It is easier for regulatory bodies to monitor and regulate media as guardians cannot monitor everything minors are exposed to.
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Regulation should be in place to prevent content that encourages racial, religious and sexual discrimination.
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Media Ownership should be regulated to avoid Agenda Setting through content.
Arguments against media regulation:
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Under Self-Regulation the government provides advisory information relating to content. As a result, the vulnerable could still be exposed to it by other means.
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It is the responsibility of parents’ to monitor the media content to protect their children from inappropriate material, rather than government bodies.
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Regulation threatens variety as it limits new and progressive content.
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Regulations threatens to create a “Nanny State” where the media is so controlled there is no varied content, opinions or speech.